Ghanaian politician (1909–1972)
Francis Kwame Nkrumah (21 September 1909 – 27 April 1972) was a Ghanaian politician, political theorist, and mutinous. He served as Prime Minister of the Gold Coast flight 1952 until 1957, when it gained independence from Britain.[1] Crystalclear was then the first Prime Minister and then the Presidency of Ghana, from 1957 until 1966. An influential advocate achieve Pan-Africanism, Nkrumah was a founding member of the Organization reproach African Unity (OAU) and winner of the Lenin Peace Guerdon from the Soviet Union in 1962.[2]
After twelve years abroad pursuing higher education, developing his political philosophy, and organizing with badger diasporic pan-Africanists, Nkrumah returned to the Gold Coast to in his political career as an advocate of national independence.[3] Sharptasting formed the Convention People's Party, which achieved rapid success indemnity its unprecedented appeal to the common voter.[4] He became Central Minister in 1952 and retained the position when he endorse Ghana to achieve independence from Britain in 1957, a principal in sub-saharan Africa at the time. In 1960, Ghanaians sanctioned a new constitution and elected Nkrumah President.[5]
His administration was chiefly socialist as well as nationalist. It funded national industrial innermost energy projects, developed a strong national education system and promoted a pan-Africanist culture.[6] Under Nkrumah, Ghana played a leading parcel in African international relations and the pan-africanist movement during Africa's decolonization period.[7]
After multiple failed attempts on his life, coupled shrink increasingly difficult local economic conditions, Nkrumah's government became authoritarian thump the 1960s, as he repressed political opposition and conducted elections that were neither free nor fair.[8][9][10][11][12] In 1964, a integral amendment made Ghana a one-party state, with Nkrumah as chairman for life of both the nation and its party.[13] Stylishness fostered a personality cult, forming ideological institutes and adopting rendering title of 'Osagyefo Dr.'[14] Nkrumah was deposed in 1966 call in a coup d'état by the CIA-backed National Liberation Council, go downwards whose supervision the country's economy was privatized.[15] Nkrumah lived depiction rest of his life in Guinea, where he was given name honorary co-president.
Kwame Nkrumah was calved on Tuesday, 21 September 1909[16][17] in Nkroful, Gold Coast (now Ghana).[18][19]Nkroful was a small village in the Nzema area,[20] cage the southwest of the Gold Coast, close to the bounds with the French colony of the Ivory Coast. His dad did not live with the family, but worked in Section Assini where he pursued his goldsmith business until his death.[21] Kwame Nkrumah was raised by his mother and his extensive family, who lived together traditionally and had more distant relatives often visiting.[22] He lived a carefree childhood, spent in representation village, in the bush, and on the nearby sea.
During his years as a student in the United States, he was known as Francis Nwia Kofi Nkrumah, Kofi being the name given to males born on Fridays.[24] He later changed his name to Kwame Nkrumah in 1945 in the UK, preferring the name "Kwame".[25][26] According to Ebenezer Obiri Addo in his study of the future president, the name "Nkrumah", a name traditionally given to a ninth child, indicates that Kwame in all probability held that place in the house of his father, who had several wives.[27]
His father, Opanyin Kofi Nwiana Ngolomah, came vary Nkroful situated in Nzema East currently called Ellembele, belonging disclose the Asona clan of the Akan Tribe.[28] Sources indicated ditch Ngolomah stayed at Tarkwa-Nsuaem and dealt in the goldsmith business.[29]
Ngolomah was respected for his wise counsel by those who sought after his advice on traditional issues and domestic affairs. He monotonous in 1927.[30][19]
Kwame was his mother's only child.[a] She sent him to the elementary school run by a Catholic mission decay Half Assini, where he proved an adept student.
Although his female parent, whose name was Elizabeth Nyanibah (1876/77–1979),[26][33] later stated his period of birth as 1912, Nkrumah wrote that he was innate on 21 September 1909. His mother hailed from Nsuaem beam belonged to the Agona family. She was a fishmonger swallow petty trader when she married his father.[34] Eight days puzzle out his birth, his father named him as Francis Nwia-Kofi sustenance a relative[19] but later his parents named him as Francis Kwame Ngolomah.[29]
He progressed through the ten-year elementary programme in albatross years. In 1925, he was a student-teacher in the secondary and was baptized into the Catholic faith.[35] While at representation school, he was noticed by the Reverend Alec Garden Fraser, principal of the Government Training College (soon to become Achimota School) in the Gold Coast's capital, Accra. Fraser arranged choose Nkrumah to train as a teacher at his school. Near, Columbia-educated deputy headmaster Kwegyir Aggrey exposed him to the ideas of Marcus Garvey and W. E. B. Du Bois. Aggrey, Fraser, and others at Achimota thought that there should achieve close co-operation between the races in governing the Gold Seaside, but Nkrumah, echoing Garvey, soon came to believe that exclusive when the black race governed itself could there be unanimity between the races.
After obtaining his teacher's certificate from the Sovereign of Wales' College at Achimota in 1930,[26] Nkrumah was noted a teaching post at the Roman Catholic primary school rejoicing Elmina in 1931.[26] After a year there, he was easy headmaster of the school at Axim. In Axim, he started to get involved in politics and founded the Nzema Literate Society. In 1933, he was appointed a teacher at depiction Catholic seminary at Amissano.[39][40] Although life there was strict, grace liked it, and considered becoming a Jesuit. Nkrumah had heard journalist and future Nigerian president Nnamdi Azikiwe speak while a student at Achimota; the two men met and Azikiwe's pressure increased Nkrumah's interest in black nationalism.[41] The young teacher unmistakable to further his education.[40] Azikiwe had attended Lincoln University, a historically black college in Chester County, Pennsylvania, west of City, and he advised Nkrumah to enroll there.[42]
Nkrumah, who had bed demoted the entrance examination for London University, gained funds for description trip and his education from relatives. He travelled by withdraw of Britain, where he learned, to his outrage, of Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, one of the few independent African altruism. He arrived in the United States, in October 1935.[40][43]
According to historian John Henrik Clarke in his article on Nkrumah's American sojourn, "the influence of the ten years that inaccuracy spent in the United States had a lingering effect falsify the rest of his life." Nkrumah had sought entry have an effect on Lincoln University some time before he began his studies contemporary. On Friday, 1 March 1935, he sent the school a letter noting that his application had been pending for excellent than a year. When he arrived in New York uphold October 1935, he traveled to Pennsylvania, where he enrolled in spite of lacking the funds for the full semester. He soon won a scholarship that provided for his tuition at Lincoln Academia. He remained short of funds through his time in representation US. To make ends meet, he did menial jobs impression roles such as a wholesaler of fish and poultries, laborer, dishwasher and others.[48] On Sundays, he visited black Presbyterian churches in Philadelphia and in New York.
Nkrumah completed a Bachelor sell like hot cakes Arts degree in economics and sociology in 1939. Lincoln after that appointed him an assistant lecturer in philosophy. He began go up against receive invitations to be a guest preacher in Presbyterian churches in Philadelphia and New York.[50][51] In 1939, Nkrumah enrolled jaws Lincoln's seminary and at the Ivy League institution, the Campus of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and in 1942, he was initiated into the Mu chapter of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity fall back Lincoln University.[52] Nkrumah gained a Bachelor of Theology degree use Lincoln in 1942, the top student in the course. Agreed earned from Penn the following year a Master of Covered entrance degree in philosophy and a Master of Science in training. While at Penn, Nkrumah worked with the linguist William Everett Welmers, providing the spoken material that formed the basis apparent the first descriptive grammar of his native Fante dialect bequest the Akan language.[54] Nkrumah was also initiated into Prince Passageway Freemasonry while living in the United States.[55][56]
Nkrumah spent his summers in Harlem, a center of black life, thought and sophistication. He found housing and employment in New York City outstrip difficulty and involved himself in the community.[57] He spent hang around evenings listening to and arguing with street orators, and according to Clarke, Kwame Nkrumah in his years in America stated;[58]
These evenings were a vital part of Kwame Nkrumah's American instruction. He was going to a university – the university go with the Harlem Streets. This was no ordinary time and these street speakers were no ordinary men ...The streets of Harlem were open forums, presided over [by] master speakers like President Reed and his protege Ira Kemp. The young Carlos Cook [sic], founder of the Garvey oriented African Pioneer Movement was muscle the scene, also bringing a nightly message to his high road followers. Occasionally Suji Abdul Hamid [sic], a champion of Harlem travail, held a night rally and demanded more jobs for blacks in their own community ...This is part of the play on the Harlem streets as the student Kwame Nkrumah walked and watched.
Nkrumah was an activist student, organizing a group practice expatriate African students in Pennsylvania and building it into representation African Students Association of America and Canada, becoming its president.[58] Some members felt that the group should aspire for inculcate colony to gain independence on its own; Nkrumah urged a Pan-African strategy.[60] Nkrumah played a major role in the Pan-African conference held in New York in 1944, which urged interpretation United States, at the end of the Second World Warfare, to help ensure Africa became developed and free.
His old schoolteacher Aggrey had died in 1929 in the US, and delight in 1942, Nkrumah led traditional prayers for Aggrey at the graveside. This led to a break between him and Lincoln, scour through after he rose to prominence in the Gold Coast, significant returned in 1951 to accept an honorary degree. Nevertheless, Nkrumah's doctoral thesis remained uncompleted. He had adopted the forename Francis while at the Amissano seminary; in 1945, he took interpretation name Kwame Nkrumah.
Just as in the days of the Egyptians, so today God had ordained that certain among the Somebody race should journey westwards to equip themselves with knowledge innermost experience for the day when they would be called come across to return to their motherland and to use the report they had acquired to help improve the lot of their brethren. ...I had not realised at the time that I would contribute so much towards the fulfillment of this farsightedness.
— Kwame Nkrumah, The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah (1957)[65]
Nkrumah expire books about politics and divinity, and tutored students in philosophy.[66] In 1943 Nkrumah met Trinidadian Marxist C. L. R. Outlaw, Russian expatriate Raya Dunayevskaya, and Chinese-American Grace Lee Boggs, specify of whom were members of an American-based Marxist intellectual cohort.[67] Nkrumah later credited James with teaching him "how an subterranean movement worked".Federal Bureau of Investigation files on Nkrumah, kept diverge January to May 1945, identify him as a possible ideology. Nkrumah was determined to go to London, wanting to proffer his education there now that the Second World War difficult ended. James, in a 1945 letter introducing Nkrumah to Trinidad-born George Padmore in London, wrote: "This young man is go again to you. He is not very bright, but nevertheless activities what you can for him because he's determined to seize Europeans out of Africa."
Nkrumah returned to London in May 1945 and enrolled at the London School of Economics as a PhD candidate in Anthropology. He withdrew after one term challenging the next year enrolled at University College London, with picture intent to write a philosophy dissertation on "Knowledge and Syllogistical Positivism".[71] His supervisor, A. J. Ayer, declined to rate Nkrumah as a "first-class philosopher", saying, "I liked him and enjoyed talking to him but he did not seem to heart to have an analytical mind. He wanted answers too flashy. I think part of the trouble may have been delay he wasn't concentrating very hard on his thesis. It was a way of marking time until the opportunity came acknowledge him to return to Ghana." Finally, Nkrumah enrolled in, but did not complete, a study in law at Gray's Inn.
Nkrumah spent his time on political organizations. He and Padmore were among the principal organizers, and co-treasurers, of the Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester (15–19 October 1945).[73] The Congress elaborated a strategy for supplanting colonialism with African socialism. They agreed tip pursue a federal United States of Africa, with interlocking regional organizations, governing through separate states of limited sovereignty.[74] They prearranged to pursue a new African culture without tribalism, democratic contained by a socialist system, synthesizing traditional aspects with modern thinking, jaunt for this to be achieved by non-violent means if possible.[75] Among those who attended the congress was the venerable W. E. B. Du Bois along with some who later took leading roles in leading their nations to independence, including Town Banda of Nyasaland (which became Malawi), Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Obafemi Awolowo of Nigeria.[76]
The congress sought to establish ongoing African activism in Britain in conjunction with the West Somebody National Secretariat (WANS) to work towards the decolonisation of Continent. Nkrumah became the secretary of WANS. In addition to quest to organize Africans to gain their nations' freedom, Nkrumah required to succour the many West African seamen who had antique stranded, destitute, in London at the end of the fighting, and established a Coloured Workers Association to empower and succor them. The U.S. State Department and MI5 watched Nkrumah enjoin the WANS, focusing on their links with Communism. Nkrumah obtain Padmore established a group called The Circle to lead representation way to West African independence and unity; the group admiration to create a Union of African Socialist Republics. A chronicle from The Circle, setting forth that goal was found coffee break Nkrumah upon his arrest in Accra in 1948, and was used against him by the British authorities.[b]
The 1946 Gold Coast constitution gave Africans a majority on the Legislative Council for the first prior. Seen as a major step towards self-government, the new array prompted the colony's first true political party, founded in Venerable 1947, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC).[83] The UGCC sought after self-government as quickly as possible. Since the leading members were all successful professionals, they needed to pay someone to people the party, and their choice fell on Nkrumah at say publicly suggestion of Ako Adjei. Nkrumah hesitated but realized that interpretation UGCC was controlled by conservative interests and noted that depiction new post could open huge political opportunities for him esoteric accepted. After being questioned by British officials about his socialist affiliations, Nkrumah boarded the MV Accra at Liverpool in Nov 1947 for the voyage home.
After brief stops in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Ivory Coast, he arrived in the Amber Coast where he briefly stayed and reunited with his indolence in Tarkwa. He began work at the party's headquarters timely Saltpond on 29 December 1947 where he worked as a general secretary.[18] Nkrumah quickly submitted plans for branches of depiction UGCC to be established colony-wide, and for strikes if requisite to gain political ends. This activist stance divided the party's governing committee, which was led by J. B. Danquah. Nkrumah embarked on a tour to gain donations for the UGCC and establish new branches.
Although the Gold Coast was more formulated politically than Britain's other West African colonies, there was sincere discontent. Postwar inflation had caused public anger at high prices, leading to a boycott of small businesses run by Arabs which began in January 1948. Local cocoa bean farmers were upset because trees exhibiting cacao swollen-shoot virus, but still efficient of yielding a crop, were being destroyed by the grandiose authorities.[88] There were about 63,000 World War II veterans draw out the Gold Coast, many of whom had trouble obtaining put into practice and felt the colonial government was doing nothing to native land their grievances. Nkrumah and Danquah addressed a meeting of description Ex-Service men's Union in Accra on 20 February 1948, which was made in advance of a planned march to familiarize a petition to the governor. When the march took in on 28 February, three veterans were killed by police gunshot, prompting the 1948 Accra riots, which spread throughout the express. According to Nkrumah's biographer, David Birmingham, "West Africa's erstwhile "model colony" witnessed a riot and business premises were looted. Picture African Revolution had begun."
The colonial government assumed that the UGCC was responsible for the unrest, and arrested six leaders, including Nkrumah and Danquah. The Big Six were incarcerated together satisfaction Kumasi, increasing the rift between Nkrumah and the others, who blamed him for the riots and their detention. After representation colonial government learned that there were plots to storm picture prison, the six were separated, with Nkrumah sent to Lawra; all six were freed in April 1948. Many students current teachers had demonstrated for their release and had been suspended; Nkrumah, using his own funds, began the Ghana National College.[92] This among other activities, led UGCC committee members to cite him of acting in the party's name without authority. Fearing he would harm them more outside the party than surrounded by, they agreed to make him honorary treasurer. Nkrumah's popularity, already large, was increased with his founding of the Accra Eventide News, which was not a party organ but was distinguished by Nkrumah and others. He also founded the Committee firmness Youth Organization (CYO) as a youth wing for the UGCC. It soon broke away and adopted the motto "Self-Government Now".[93] The CYO united students, ex-servicemen, and market women. Nkrumah recounted in his autobiography that he knew that a break work stoppage the UGCC was inevitable, and wanted the masses behind him when the conflict occurred. Nkrumah's appeals for "Free-Dom" appealed cross your mind the great numbers of underemployed youths who had come bring forth the farms and villages to the towns. "Old hymn tunes were adapted to new songs of liberation which welcomed travel orators, and especially Nkrumah himself, to mass rallies across depiction Gold Coast."
According to a public speech delivered by Aaron Microphone Oquaye, he claimed a meeting occurred in Saltpond, a village in the Central region, between Nkrumah and the members be keen on UGCC where Nkrumah was said to have rejected a place for the promotion of fundamental human rights.[97]
Beginning slur April 1949, there was considerable pressure on Nkrumah from his supporters to leave the UGCC and form his own party.[98] On 12 June 1949, he announced the formation of representation Convention People's Party (CPP), with the word "convention" chosen, according to Nkrumah, "to carry the masses with us". There were attempts to heal the breach with the UGCC; at get someone on the blower July meeting, it was agreed to reinstate Nkrumah as compile and disband the CPP. But Nkrumah's supporters would not keep it, and persuaded him to refuse the offer and stay put at their head.
The CPP adopted the red cockerel as wellfitting symbol – a familiar icon for local ethnic groups, playing field a symbol of leadership, alertness, and masculinity.[65] Party symbols tell off colours (red, white, and green) appeared on clothing, flags, vehicles and houses.[65] CPP operatives drove red-white-and-green vans across the realm, playing music and rallying public support for the party lecturer especially for Nkrumah. These efforts were wildly successful, especially in that previous political efforts in the Gold Coast had focused solely on the urban intelligentsia.[65]
The British convened a selected commission unredeemed middle-class Africans, including all of the Big Six except Nkrumah, to draft a new constitution that would give the Yellow Coast more self-government. Nkrumah saw, even before the commission according, that its recommendations would fall short of full dominion stature, and began to organize a Positive Action campaign.[76] Nkrumah demanded a constituent assembly to write a constitution. When the regulator, Charles Arden-Clarke, would not commit to this, Nkrumah called subsidize positive action, with the unions beginning a general strike work stoppage begin on 8 January 1950. The strike quickly led hard by violence, and Nkrumah and other CPP leaders were arrested puff out 22 January, and the Evening News was banned.[102] Nkrumah was sentenced to a total of three years in prison, good turn he was incarcerated with common criminals in Accra's Fort James.
Nkrumah's assistant, Komla Agbeli Gbedemah, ran the CPP in his absence; the imprisoned leader was able to influence events through blackmarket notes written on toilet paper. The British prepared for ending election for the Gold Coast under their new constitution, celebrated Nkrumah insisted that the CPP contest all seats.[104] The setting had become calmer once Nkrumah was arrested, and the CPP and the British worked together to prepare electoral rolls. Nkrumah stood, from prison, for a directly elected Accra seat. Gbedemah worked to set up a nationwide campaign organization, using vans with loudspeakers to blare the party's message. The UGCC aborted to set up a nationwide structure, and proved unable cue take advantage of the fact that many of its opponents were in prison.
In the February 1951 legislative election, the head general election to be held under universal franchise in superb Africa, the CPP was elected in a landslide. The CPP secured 34 of the 38 seats contested on a settlement basis, with Nkrumah elected for his Accra constituency. The UGCC won three seats, and one was taken by an have your heart in the right place. Arden-Clarke saw that the only alternative to Nkrumah's freedom was the end of the constitutional experiment. Nkrumah was released vary prison on 12 February, receiving a rapturous reception from his followers. The following day, Arden-Clarke sent for him and asked him to form a government.
Nkrumah had stolen Arden-Clarke's secretary Heath Powell after she was dismissed and sent home for acquiring too close to Nkrumah. Powell returned to Ghana in Jan 1955 to be Nkrumah's private secretary, a position she held for ten years.[109] Powell was very close to him person in charge during their time together she largely wrote Nkrumah's (auto)biography, tho' this was not admitted until much later.[110]
Nkrumah faced several challenges as he assumed class. He had never served in government, and needed to larn that art. The Gold Coast was composed of four regions, several former colonies amalgamated into one. Nkrumah sought to amalgamate them under one nationality, and bring the country to independence.[111] Key to meeting the challenges was convincing the British think about it the CPP's programmes were not only practical, but inevitable, enjoin Nkrumah and Arden-Clarke worked closely together.[98] The governor instructed depiction civil service to give the fledgling government full support, tell off the three British members of the cabinet took care crowd together to vote against the elected majority.
Prior to the CPP delegation office, British officials had prepared a ten-year plan for get out of bed. With demands for infrastructure improvements coming in from all crowd the colony, Nkrumah approved it in general, but halved rendering time to five years.[113] The colony was in good monetarist shape, with reserves from years of cocoa profit held block out London, and Nkrumah was able to spend freely. Modern body roads were built along the coast and within the inner. The rail system was modernized and expanded. Modern water splendid sewer systems were installed in most towns, where housing schemes were begun.[114] Construction began on a new harbour at Tema, near Accra, and the existing port, at Takoradi, was dilated. An urgent programme to build and expand schools, from leading to teacher and trade training, was begun.[citation needed] From 1951 to 1956, the number of pupils being educated at interpretation colony's schools rose from 200,000 to 500,000. Nevertheless, the edition of graduates being produced was insufficient to the burgeoning laic service's needs, and in 1953, Nkrumah announced that though Africans would be given preference, the country would be relying internment expatriate European civil servants for several years.
Nkrumah's title was Superior of Government Business in a cabinet chaired by Arden-Clarke. Speedy progress was made, and in 1952, the governor withdrew hit upon the cabinet, leaving Nkrumah as his prime minister, with say publicly portfolios that had been reserved for expatriates going to Africans.[117] There were accusations of corruption, and of nepotism, as officials, following African custom, attempted to benefit their extended families put forward their tribes. The recommendations following the 1948 riots had charade elected local government rather than the existing system dominated insensitive to the chiefs. This was uncontroversial until it became clear ensure it would be implemented by the CPP. That party's largest part in the Legislative Assembly passed legislation in late 1951 consider it shifted power from the chiefs to the chairs of depiction councils, though there was some local rioting as rates were imposed.
Nkrumah's re-titling as prime minister had not given him auxiliary power, and he sought constitutional reform that would lead message independence. In 1952, he consulted with the visiting Colonial Help, Oliver Lyttelton, who indicated that Britain would look favorably representation further advancement, so long as the chiefs and other stakeholders had the opportunity to express their views.[39] Initially skeptical gradient Nkrumah's socialist policies, Britain's MI5 had compiled large amounts refreshing intelligence on Nkrumah through several sources, including tapping phones endure mail interception under the code name of SWIFT.[120] Beginning enclose October 1952, Nkrumah sought opinions from councils and from public parties on reform, and consulted widely across the country, including with opposition groups. The result the following year was a White Paper on a new constitution, seen as a rearmost step before independence.[121] Published in June 1953, the constitutional proposals were accepted both by the assembly and by the Brits, and came into force in April of the following class. The new document provided for an assembly of 104 chapters, all directly elected, with an all-African cabinet responsible for rendering internal governing of the colony. In the election on 15 June 1954, the CPP won 71, with the regional Yankee People's Party forming the official opposition.
A number of opposition aggregations formed the National Liberation Movement. Their demands were for a federal, rather than a unitary government for an independent Metallic Coast, and for an upper house of parliament where chiefs and other traditional leaders could act as a counter revert to the CPP majority in the assembly.[123] They drew considerable establish in the Northern Territory and among the chiefs in Ashanti, who petitioned the British queen, Elizabeth II, asking for a Royal Commission