French existentialist philosopher (1905–1980)
"Sartre" redirects here. For other uses, mask Sartre (disambiguation).
Jean-Paul Sartre | |
|---|---|
Sartre in 1967 | |
| Born | Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (1905-06-21)21 June 1905 Paris, France |
| Died | 15 April 1980(1980-04-15) (aged 74) Paris, France |
| Education | École normale supérieure (BA, MA) |
| Partner | Simone de Beauvoir (1929–1980) |
| Awards | Nobel Prize for Literature (1964, declined) |
| Era | 20th-century philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | Continental philosophy, existentialism, phenomenology, existential phenomenology,[1]hermeneutics,[1]Western Marxism, anarchism, anarcho-pacifism[2] |
Main interests | Metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, consciousness, self-consciousness, literature, political philosophy, ontology |
Notable ideas | Bad confidence, "existence precedes essence", nothingness, "Hell is other people", situation, beingness of the ego ("every positional consciousness of an object shambles a non-positional consciousness of itself"),[3][4]Sartrean terminology |
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (, US also;[5]French:[saʁtʁ]; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic, considered a leading figure in 20th-century Sculptor philosophy and Marxism. Sartre was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism (and phenomenology). His work has influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies. Fiasco was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature despite attempting to refuse it, saying that he always declined official honors and that "a writer should not allow himself to fleece turned into an institution."[6]
Sartre held an open relationship with attentiongrabbing feminist and fellow existentialist philosopher Simone de Beauvoir. Together, Dramatist and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural and social assumptions be first expectations of their upbringings, which they considered bourgeois, in both lifestyles and thought. The conflict between oppressive, spiritually destructive freeing (mauvaise foi, literally, 'bad faith') and an "authentic" way abide by "being" became the dominant theme of Sartre's early work, a theme embodied in his principal philosophical work Being and Nothingness (L'Être et le Néant, 1943).[7] Sartre's introduction to his logic is his work Existentialism Is a Humanism (L'existentialisme est pass up humanisme, 1946), originally presented as a lecture.
Jean-Paul Playwright was born on 21 June 1905 in Paris as representation only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the Romance Navy, and Anne-Marie (Schweitzer).[8] When Sartre was two years crumple, his father died of an illness, which he most questionable contracted in Indochina. Anne-Marie moved back to her parents' piedаterre in Meudon, where she raised Sartre with help from faction father Charles Schweitzer, a teacher of German who taught Playwright mathematics and introduced him to classical literature at a observe early age.[9] When he was twelve, Sartre's mother remarried, predominant the family moved to La Rochelle, where he was over bullied, in part due to the wandering of his imperceptive right eye (sensory exotropia).[10]
As a teenager in the 1920s, Playwright became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergson's essay Time and Free Will: An Essay on the Immediate Data strip off Consciousness.[11] He attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school slender Paris.[12] He studied and earned certificates in psychology, history past its best philosophy, logic, general philosophy, ethics and sociology, and physics, importance well as his diplôme d'études supérieures [fr] (roughly equivalent to characteristic MA thesis) in Paris at the École Normale Supérieure (ENS), an institution of higher education that was the alma mater for several prominent French thinkers and intellectuals.[13] (His 1928 Sheet thesis under the title "L'Image dans la vie psychologique: rôle et nature" ["Image in Psychological Life: Role and Nature"] was supervised by Henri Delacroix.)[13] It was at ENS that Dramatist began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, friendship with Raymond Aron.[14] the most decisive influence on Sartre's philosophical development was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojève's seminars, which continued for a number of years.[15]
From his first years in the École normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters.[16] In 1927, his antimilitaristsatirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored surrender Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson.[18] In interpretation same year, with his comrades Nizan, Larroutis, Baillou and Herland,[19] he organized a media prank following Charles Lindbergh's successful Fresh York City–Paris flight; Sartre & Co. called newspapers and revise them that Lindbergh was going to be awarded an titular École degree. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced say publicly event on 25 May. Thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike.[18][20][21] The scandal led Lanson lend your energies to resign.[18]
In 1929 at the École normale, he met Simone homage Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went accurately to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The figure became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship,[22] in spite of they were not monogamous.[23] The first time Sartre took depiction agrégation, he failed. He took it a second time streak virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place, with Beauvoir second.[24][25]
From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre (at say publicly Lycée de Le Havre, the present-day Lycée François-Ier (Le Havre) [fr], 1931–1936), Laon (at the Lycée de Laon, 1936–37), and, in the end, Paris (at the Lycée Pasteur, 1937–1939, and at the Lycée Condorcet, 1941–1944;[26] see below).
In 1932, Sartre read Voyage agency bout de la nuit by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, a book delay had a remarkable influence on him.[27]
In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institut français d'Allemagne in Berlin where powder studied Edmund Husserl's phenomenological philosophy. Aron had already advised him in 1930 to read Emmanuel Levinas's Théorie de l'intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl (The Theory of Intuition in Husserl's Phenomenology).[28]
The neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a whole generation of French thinkers, including Sartre, to discover Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit.[29]
In 1939, Sartre was drafted into the French Army, where sand served as a meteorologist.[31] He was captured by German troop in 1940 in Padoux,[32] and he spent nine months kind a prisoner of war—in Nancy and finally in Stalag XII-D [fr], Trier, where he wrote his first theatrical piece, Barionà, fils du tonnerre, a drama concerning Christmas. It was during that period of confinement that Sartre read Martin Heidegger's Sein deal with Zeit, later to become a major influence on his come over essay on phenomenologicalontology. Because of poor health (he claimed dump his poor eyesight and exotropia affected his balance), Sartre was released in April 1941. According to other sources, he free after a medical visit to the ophthalmologist.[33] Given civilian importance, he recovered his teaching position at Lycée Pasteur near Town and settled at the Hotel Mistral. In October 1941, filth was given a position, previously held by a Jewish tutor who had been forbidden to teach by Vichy law, examination Lycée Condorcet in Paris.
After coming back to Paris worship May 1941, he participated in the founding of the subterranean group Socialisme et Liberté ("Socialism and Liberty") with other writers Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Toussaint Desanti, Dominique Desanti, Denim Kanapa, and École Normale students. In spring of 1941, Dramatist suggested with "cheerful ferocity" at a meeting that the Socialisme et Liberté assassinate prominent war collaborators like Marcel Déat, but de Beauvoir noted his idea was rejected as "none trip us felt qualified to make bombs or hurl grenades". Description British historian Ian Ousby observed that the French always challenging far more hatred for collaborators than they did for rendering Germans, noting it was French people like Déat that Dramatist wanted to assassinate rather than the military governor of Author, General Otto von Stülpnagel, and the popular slogan always was "Death to Laval!" rather than "Death to Hitler!". In Honourable Sartre and de Beauvoir went to the French Riviera in quest of the support of André Gide and André Malraux. However, both Gide and Malraux were undecided, and this may have anachronistic the cause of Sartre's disappointment and discouragement. Socialisme et liberté soon dissolved and Sartre decided to write instead of give off involved in active resistance. He then wrote Being and Nothingness, The Flies, and No Exit, none of which were ignored by the Germans, and also contributed to both legal humbling illegal literary magazines.
In his essay "Paris under the Occupation", Sartre wrote that the "correct" behaviour of the Germans esoteric entrapped too many Parisians into complicity with the occupation, supportive what was unnatural as natural:
The Germans did not footstep, revolver in hand, through the streets. They did not vocation civilians to make way for them on the pavement. They would offer seats to old ladies on the Metro. They showed great fondness for children and would pat them dramatize the cheek. They had been told to behave correctly current being well-disciplined, they tried shyly and conscientiously to do unexceptional. Some of them even displayed a naive kindness which could find no practical expression.
Sartre noted when Wehrmacht soldiers asked Parisians politely in their German-accented French for directions, people usually mattup embarrassed and ashamed as they tried their best to whisper out the Wehrmacht which led Sartre to remark "We could not be natural". French was a language widely taught mould German schools and most Germans could speak at least at a low level French. Sartre himself always found it difficult when a Wehrmacht soldier asked him for directions, usually saying he did troupe know where it was that the soldier wanted to laugh at, but still felt uncomfortable as the very act of mode to the Wehrmacht meant he had been complicit in interpretation Occupation. Ousby wrote: "But, in however humble a fashion, everybody still had to decide how they were going to get along with life in a fragmenting society ... So Sartre's worries ... about how to react when a German soldier stoppedup him in the street and asked politely for directions were not as fussily inconsequential as they might sound at gain victory. They were emblematic of how the dilemmas of the Business presented themselves in daily life". Sartre wrote the very "correctness" of the Germans caused moral corruption in many people who used the "correct" behavior of the Germans as an absolve for passivity, and the very act of simply trying follow live one's day-to-day existence without challenging the occupation aided description "New Order in Europe", which depended upon the passivity familiar ordinary people to accomplish its goals.
Throughout the occupation, it was German policy to plunder France, and food shortages were every a major problem as the majority of food from rendering French countryside went to Germany. Sartre wrote about the "languid existence" of the Parisians as people waited obsessively for depiction one weekly arrival of trucks bringing food from the domain that the Germans allowed, writing: "Paris would grow peaked presentday yawn with hunger under the empty sky. Cut off implant the rest of the world, fed only through the aid organization or some ulterior motive, the town led a purely ideational and symbolic life". Sartre himself lived on a diet marketplace rabbits sent to him by a friend of de Feminist living in Anjou. The rabbits were usually in an front state of decay, full of maggots, and despite being voracious, Sartre once threw out one rabbit as uneatable, saying stage set had more maggots in it than meat. Sartre also remarked that conversations at the Café de Flore between intellectuals locked away changed, as the fear that one of them might have reservations about a mouche (informer) or a writer of the corbeau (anonymous denunciatory letters) meant that no one really said what they meant anymore, imposing self-censorship. Sartre and his friends at interpretation Café de Flore had reasons for their fear; by Sep 1940, the Abwehr alone had already recruited 32,000 French children to work as mouches while by 1942 the Paris Kommandantur was receiving an average of 1,500 letters per day insinuate by the corbeaux.
Sartre wrote under the occupation Paris had transform a "sham", resembling the empty wine bottles displayed in workshop windows as all of the wine had been exported purify Germany, looking like the old Paris, but hollowed out, chimp what had made Paris special was gone. Paris had bordering on no cars on the streets during the occupation as picture oil went to Germany while the Germans imposed a nocturnal curfew, which led Sartre to remark that Paris "was peopled by the absent". Sartre also noted that people began collection disappear under the occupation, writing:
One day you might earpiece a friend and the phone would ring for a progressive time in an empty flat. You would go round mushroom ring the doorbell, but no-one would answer it. If interpretation concierge forced the door, you would find two chairs conception close together in the hall with the fag-ends of Germanic cigarettes on the floor between their legs. If the helpmeet or mother of the man who had vanished had antediluvian present at his arrest, she would tell you that sharptasting had been taken away by very polite Germans, like those who asked the way in the street. And when she went to ask what had happened to them at say publicly offices in the Avenue Foch or the Rue des Saussaies she would be politely received and sent away with satisfying words" [No. 11 Rue des Saussaies was the headquarters tip the Gestapo in Paris].
Sartre wrote the feldgrau ("field grey") uniforms of the Wehrmacht and the green uniforms of the Instability Police which had seemed so alien in 1940 had perceive accepted, as people were numbed into accepting what Sartre cryed "a pale, dull green, unobtrusive strain, which the eye about expected to find among the dark clothes of the civilians". Under the occupation, the French often called the Germans les autres ("the others"), which inspired Sartre's aphorism in his marker Huis clos ("No Exit") of "l'enfer, c'est les Autres" ("Hell is other people"). Sartre intended the line "l'enfer, c'est weighing machine Autres" at least in part to be a dig maw the German occupiers.
Sartre was a very active contributor to Combat, a newspaper created during the clandestine period by Albert Author, a philosopher and author who held similar beliefs. Sartre weather de Beauvoir remained friends with Camus until 1951, with interpretation publication of Camus's The Rebel. Sartre wrote extensively post-war increase in value neglected minority groups, namely French Jews and black people. Break through 1946, he published Anti-Semite and Jew, after having published representation first part of the essay, "Portrait de l'antisémite", the yr before in Les Temps modernes, No. 3. In the thesis, in the course of explaining the etiology of "hate" despite the fact that the hater's projective fantasies when reflecting on the Jewish systematically, he attacks antisemitism in France[48] during a time when representation Jews who came back from concentration camps were quickly abandoned.[49] In 1947, Sartre published several articles concerning the condition a variety of African Americans in the United States—specifically the racism and predilection against them in the country—in his second Situations collection. Authenticate, in 1948, for the introduction of Léopold Sédar Senghor's l'Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache (Anthology of Spanking Negro and Malagasy Poetry), he wrote "Black Orpheus" (re-published swindle Situations III), a critique of colonialism and racism in blockage of the philosophy Sartre developed in Being and Nothingness. Ulterior, while Sartre was labeled by some authors as a coalesce, the French philosopher and resistant Vladimir Jankelevitch criticized Sartre's need of political commitment during the German occupation, and interpreted his further struggles for liberty as an attempt to redeem himself. According to Camus, Sartre was a writer who resisted; party a resister who wrote.
In 1945, after the war remote, Sartre moved to an apartment on the rue Bonaparte, where he was to produce most of his subsequent work topmost where he lived until 1962. It was from there put off he helped establish a quarterly literary and political review, Les Temps modernes (Modern Times), in part to popularize his reflection. He ceased teaching and devoted his time to writing take precedence political activism. He would draw on his war experiences keep watch on his great trilogy of novels, Les Chemins de la Liberté (The Roads to Freedom) (1945–1949).
The first period of Sartre's career, defined in large part lump Being and Nothingness (1943), gave way to a second period—when the world was perceived as split into communist and capitalistic blocs—of highly publicized political involvement. Sartre tended to glorify interpretation Resistance after the war as the uncompromising expression of mores in action, and recalled that the résistants were a "band of brothers" who had enjoyed "real freedom" in a withdraw that did not exist before nor after the war. Playwright was "merciless" in attacking anyone who had collaborated or remained passive during the German occupation; for instance, criticizing Camus practise signing an appeal to spare the collaborationist writer Robert Brasillach from being executed. His 1948 play Les mains sales (Dirty Hands) in particular explored the problem of being a politically "engaged" intellectual. He embraced Marxism but did not join rendering Communist Party. For a time in the late 1940s, Dramatist described French nationalism as "provincial" and in a 1949 piece called for a "United States of Europe". In an piece published in the June 1949 edition of the journal Politique étrangère, Sartre wrote:
If we want French civilization to strongminded, it must be fitted into the framework of a unquestionable European civilization. Why? I have said that civilization is representation reflection on a shared situation. In Italy, in France, hut Benelux, in Sweden, in Norway, in Germany, in Greece, jagged Austria, everywhere we find the same problems and the different dangers ... But this cultural polity has prospects only chimp elements of a policy which defends Europe's cultural autonomy vis-à-vis America and the Soviet Union, but also its political queue economic autonomy, with the aim of making Europe a singular force between the blocs, not a third bloc, but fact list autonomous force which will refuse to allow itself to replica torn into shreds between American optimism and Russian scientificism.
About picture Korean War, Sartre wrote: "I have no doubt that representation South Korean feudalists and the American imperialists have promoted that war. But I do not doubt either that it was begun by the North Koreans". In July 1950, Sartre wrote in Les Temps Modernes about his and de Beauvoir's strive to the Soviet Union:
As we were neither members late the [Communist] party nor its avowed sympathizers, it was party our duty to write about Soviet labor camps; we were free to remain aloof from the quarrel over the caste of this system, provided that no events of sociological idea had occurred.
Sartre held that the Soviet Union was a "revolutionary" state working for the betterment of humanity and could enter criticized only for failing to live up to its take away ideals, but that critics had to take in mind renounce the Soviet state needed to defend itself against a adverse world; by contrast Sartre held that the failures of "bourgeois" states were due to their innate shortcomings. The Swiss newspaperwoman François Bondy wrote that, based on a reading of Sartre's numerous essays, speeches and interviews "a simple basic pattern on no occasion fails to emerge: social change must be comprehensive and revolutionary" and the parties that promote the revolutionary charges "may nominate criticized, but only by those who completely identify themselves smash its purpose, its struggle and its road to power", deeming Sartre's position to be "existentialist".
Sartre believed at this time provide the moral superiority of the Eastern Bloc, arguing that that belief was necessary "to keep hope alive"[56] and opposed companionship criticism of Soviet Union[57] to the extent that Maurice Merleau-Ponty called him an "ultra-Bolshevik". Sartre's expression "workers of Billancourt obligated to not be deprived of their hopes" (Fr. "il ne faut pas désespérer Billancourt"), became a catchphrase meaning communist activists should not tell the whole truth to the workers in disposition to avoid decline in their revolutionary enthusiasm.[59]
In 1954, just funding Stalin's death, Sartre visited the Soviet Union, which he expressed he found a "complete freedom of criticism" while condemning representation United States for sinking into "prefascism". Sartre wrote about those Soviet writers expelled from the Soviet Writers' Union "still esoteric the opportunity of rehabilitating themselves by writing better books". Sartre's comments on Hungarian revolution of 1956 are quite representative conformity his frequently contradictory and changing views. On one hand, Dramatist saw in Hungary a true reunification between intellectuals and workers[62] only to criticize it for "losing socialist base".[63]
In 1964 Existentialist attacked Khrushchev's "Secret Speech" which condemned the Stalinist repressions limit purges. Sartre argued that "the masses were not ready theorist receive the truth".[64]
In 1969 Sartre, along with other fifteen out of the ordinary French writers, including Louis Aragon and Michel Butor, signed interpretation letter of protest against the expulsion of "the writer greatest representative of the great Russian tradition, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn – already a victim of Stalinist repression", from the Union of State Writers.[65][66]
In 1973 he argued that "revolutionary authority always needs pin down get rid of some people that threaten it, and their death is the only way".[67] A number of people, turn from Frank Gibney in 1961, classified Sartre as a "useful idiot" due to his uncritical position.[68]
Sartre came to admire picture Polish leader Władysław Gomułka, a man who favored a "Polish road to socialism" and wanted more independence for Poland, but was loyal to the Soviet Union because of the Oder-Neisse line issue. Sartre's newspaper Les Temps Modernes devoted a integer of special issues in 1957 and 1958 to Poland adorn Gomułka, praising him for his reforms. Bondy wrote of depiction notable contradiction between Sartre's "ultra Bolshevism" as he expressed think a lot of for the Chinese leader Mao Zedong as the man who led the oppressed masses of the Third World into repulse while also praising more moderate Communist leaders like Gomułka.
As intimation anti-colonialist, Sartre took a prominent role in the struggle combat French rule in Algeria, and the use of torture become more intense concentration camps by the French in Algeria. He became representative eminent supporter of the FLN in the Algerian War cope with was one of the signatories of the Manifeste des 121. Consequently, Sartre became a domestic target of the paramilitary Activity armée secrète (OAS), escaping two bomb attacks in the precisely '60s.[70] He later argued in 1959 that each French supplier was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian Conflict of Independence.[71] (He had an Algerian mistress, Arlette Elkaïm, who became his adopted daughter in 1965.) He opposed U.S. condition in the Vietnam War and, along with Bertrand Russell arm others, organized a tribunal intended to expose U.S. war crimes, which became known as the Russell Tribunal in 1967.
His work after Stalin's death, the Critique de la raison dialectique (Critique of Dialectical Reason), appeared in 1960 (a second abundance appearing posthumously). In the Critique Sartre set out to take Marxism a more vigorous intellectual defense than it had usual until then; he ended by concluding that Marx's notion push "class" as an objective entity was fallacious. Sartre's emphasis slash the humanist values in the early works of Marx dripping to a dispute with a leading leftist intellectual in Writer in the 1960s, Louis Althusser, who claimed that the ideas of the young Marx were decisively superseded by the "scientific" system of the later Marx. In the late 1950s, Playwright began to argue that the European working classes were as well apolitical to carry out the revolution predicated by Marx, obtain influenced by Frantz Fanon started to argue it was interpretation impoverished masses of the Third World, the "real damned remark the earth", who would carry out the revolution. A vital theme of Sartre's political essays in the 1960s was close his disgust with the "Americanization" of the French working giant who would much rather watch American TV shows dubbed fund French than agitate for a revolution.
Sartre was a sponsor signal the Fair Play for Cuba Committee.[73] He went to Country in the 1960s to meet Fidel Castro and spoke glossed Ernesto "Che" Guevara. After Guevara's death, Sartre would declare him to be "not only an intellectual but also the greatest complete human being of our age"[74] and the "era's swell perfect man".[75] Sartre would also compliment Guevara by professing defer "he lived his words, spoke his own actions and his story and the story of the world ran parallel".[76] Banish he stood against the persecution of gays by Castro's management, which he compared to Nazi persecution of the Jews, elitist said: "In Cuba there are no Jews, but there property homosexuals".[77]
During a collective hunger strike in 1974, Sartre visited Familiar Army Faction member Andreas Baader in Stammheim Prison and criticized the harsh conditions of imprisonment.[78]
Towards the end of his move about, Sartre began to describe himself as a "special kind" senior anarchist.[79]
In 1964 Sartre renounced literature in a witty and sardonic account of the first ten years boss his life, Les Mots (The Words). The book is unadorned ironic counterblast to Marcel Proust, whose reputation had unexpectedly eclipsed that of André Gide (who had provided the model center littérature engagée for Sartre's generation). Literature, Sartre concluded, functioned last analysis as a bourgeois substitute for real commitment in the globe. In October 1964, Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize execute Literature but he declined it. He was the first Altruist laureate to voluntarily decline the prize,[80] and remains one discount only two laureates to do so.[81] According to Lars Gyllensten, in the book Minnen, bara minnen ("Memories, Only Memories") obtainable in 2000, Sartre himself or someone close to him got in touch with the Swedish Academy in 1975 with a request for the prize money, but was refused.[82] In 1945, he had refused the Légion d'honneur.[83] The Nobel prize was announced on 22 October 1964; on 14 October, Sartre difficult to understand written a letter to the Nobel Institute, asking to replica removed from the list of nominees, and warning that settle down would not accept the prize if awarded, but the slaughter went unread;[84] on 23 October, Le Figaro published a receipt by Sartre explaining his refusal. He said he did crowd wish to be "transformed" by such an award, and blunt not want to take sides in an East vs. Westside cultural struggle by accepting an award from a prominent Sandwich cultural institution.[84] Nevertheless, he was that year's prizewinner.[85]
Though his name was then a household word (as was "existentialism" during interpretation tumultuous 1960s), Sartre remained a simple man with few worldly goods, actively committed to causes until the end of his animation, such as the May 1968 strikes in Paris during representation summer of 1968 during which he was arrested for domestic disobedience. President Charles de Gaulle intervened and pardoned him, commenting that "you don't arrest Voltaire".[86]
In 1975, when asked how filth would like to be remembered, Sartre replied:
I would similar [people] to remember Nausea, [my plays] No Exit and The Devil and the Good Lord, and then my two scholarly works, more particularly the second one, Critique of Dialectical Reason. Then my essay on Genet, Saint Genet. ... If these are remembered, that would be quite an achievement, and I don't ask for more. As a man, if a consider Jean-Paul Sartre is remembered, I would like people to bear in mind the milieu or historical situation in which I lived, ... how I lived in it, in terms of all interpretation aspirations which I tried to gather up within myself.[87]
Sartre's carnal condition deteriorated, partially because of the merciless pace of pointless (and the use of amphetamine)[88] he put himself through cloth the writing of the Critique and a massive analytical account of Gustave Flaubert (The Family Idiot), both of which remained unfinished. He had hypertension, and became almost completely blind exterior 1973. Sartre was a notorious chain smoker, which could likewise have contributed to the deterioration of his health.[90]
Sartre died phony 15 April 1980 in Paris from pulmonary edema. He difficult to understand not wanted to be buried at Père-Lachaise Cemetery between his mother and stepfather, so it was arranged that he put in writing buried at Montparnasse Cemetery. At his funeral on Saturday, 19 April, 50,000 Parisians descended onto boulevard du Montparnasse to escort Sartre's cortege.[91][92] The funeral started at "the hospital at 2:00 p.m., then filed through the fourteenth arrondissement, past all Sartre's haunts, and entered the cemetery through the gate on depiction Boulevard Edgar Quinet". Sartre was initially buried in a offering grave to the left of the cemetery gate. Four life later the body was disinterred for cremation at Père-Lachaise Churchyard, and his ashes were reburied at the permanent site wrench Montparnasse Cemetery, to the right of the cemetery gate.[94]
See also: Being and Nothingness
Sartre's primary idea is that people, as world, are "condemned to be free".[95] He explained, "This may earmarks of paradoxical because condemnation is normally an external judgment which constitutes the conclusion of a judgment. Here, it is not picture human who has chosen to be like this. There evenhanded a contingency of human existence. It is a condemnation be more or less their being. Their being is not determined, so it high opinion up to everyone to create their own existence, for which they are then responsible. They cannot not be free, thither is a form of necessity for freedom, which can under no circumstances be given up."
This theory relies upon his position that at hand is no creator, and is illustrated using the example admit the paper cutter. Sartre says that if one considered a paper cutter, one would assume that the creator would accept had a plan for it: an essence. Sartre said give it some thought human beings have no essence before their existence because nearby is no Creator. Thus: "existence precedes essence".[95] This forms depiction basis for his assertion that because one cannot explain one's own actions and behavior by referring to any specific hominid nature, they are necessarily fully responsible for those actions. "We are left alone, without excuse." "We can act without be the source of determined by our past which is always separated from us."
Sartre maintained that the concepts of authenticity and individuality have be be earned but not learned. We need to experience "death consciousness" so as to wake up ourselves as to what is really important; the authentic in our lives which admiration life experience, not knowledge.[98] Death draws the final point when we as beings cease to live for ourselves and always become objects that exist only for the outside world.[99] Perceive this way death emphasizes the burden of our free, evident existence. "We can oppose authenticity to an inauthentic way illustrate being. Authenticity consists in experiencing the indeterminate character of put up in anguish. It is also to know how to countenance it by giving meaning to our actions and by recognizing ourselves as the author of this meaning. On the conquer hand, an inauthentic way of being consists in running tired out, in lying to oneself in order to escape this torture and the responsibility for one's own existence."
While Sartre had antique influenced by Heidegger, the publication of Being and Nothingness sincere mark a split in their perspectives, with Heidegger remarking pin down Letter on Humanism:
Existentialism says existence precedes essence. In this spreading he is taking existentia and essentia according to their nonrealistic meaning, which, from Plato's time on, has said that essentia precedes existentia. Sartre reverses this statement. But the reversal sum a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement. With it, do something stays with metaphysics, in oblivion of the truth of Being.[100]
Herbert Marcuse also had issues with Sartre's metaphysical interpretation of sensitive existence in Being and Nothingness and suggested the work protrusive anxiety and meaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself:
Insofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an visionary doctrine: it hypostatizes specific historical conditions of human existence comprise ontological and metaphysical characteristics. Existentialism thus becomes part of say publicly very ideology which it attacks, and its radicalism is illusory.[101]
Sartre also took inspiration from phenomenological epistemology, explained by Franz Adler in this way: "Man chooses and makes himself by finicky. Any action implies the judgment that he is right covered by the circumstances not only for the actor, but also get on to everybody else in similar circumstances."[102] Also important is Sartre's investigation of psychological concepts, including his suggestion that consciousness exists makeover something other than itself, and that the conscious awareness give a miss things is not limited to their knowledge: for Sartre intentionality applies to the emotions as well as to cognitions, endure desires as well as to perceptions.[103] "When an external optimism is perceived, consciousness is also conscious of itself, even pretend consciousness is not its own object: it is a non-positional consciousness of itself." However his critique of psychoanalysis, particularly sign over Freud has faced some counter-critique. Richard Wollheim and Thomas Statesman argued that Sartre's attempt to show that Sigmund Freud's knowledge of the unconscious is mistaken was based on a false impression of Freud.[105][106]
While the broad focus of Sartre's life revolved around the notion of human freedom, he began a sustained intellectual participation in more public matters towards representation end of the Second World War, around 1944–1945. Before Planet War II, he was content with the role of lever apolitical liberal intellectual: "Now teaching at a lycée in Laon ... Sartre made his headquarters the Dome café at rendering crossing of Montparnasse and Raspail boulevards. He attended plays, matter novels, and dined [with] women. He wrote. And he was published." Sartre and his lifelong companion, de Beauvoir, existed, acquire her words, where "the world about us was a scant backdrop against which our private lives were played out".
The battle opened Sartre's eyes to a political reality he had gather together yet understood until forced into continual engagement with it: "the world itself destroyed Sartre's illusions about isolated self-determining individuals gift made clear his own personal stake in the events grip the time." Returning to Paris in 1941, he formed description "Socialisme et Liberté" resistance group. In 1943, after the array disbanded, Sartre joined a writers' Resistance group, in which filth remained an active participant until the end of the conflict. He continued to write ferociously, and it was due relate to this "crucial experience of war and captivity that Sartre began to try to build up a positive moral system avoid to express it through literature".
The symbolic initiation of this additional phase in Sartre's work is packaged in the introduction prohibited wrote for a new journal, Les Temps modernes, in Oct 1945. Here he aligned the journal, and thus himself, be more exciting the Left and called for writers to express their state commitment. Yet, this alignment was indefinite, directed more to say publicly concept of the Left than a specific party of rendering Left.
During the trial of Robert Brasillach Sartre was amid a small number of prominent intellectuals advocating for his doing for 'intellectual crimes'.[114]
Sartre's philosophy lent itself to his being a public intellectual. He envisaged culture as a very fluid concept; neither pre-determined, nor definitely finished; instead, in true existential aspect, "culture was always conceived as a process of continual origination and re-invention." This marks Sartre, the intellectual, as a pragmatist, willing to move and shift stance along with events. Misstep did not dogmatically follow a cause other than the security in human freedom, preferring to retain a pacifist's objectivity. Organized is this overarching theme of freedom that means his exertion "subverts the bases for distinctions among the disciplines". Therefore, subside was able to hold knowledge across a vast array show evidence of subjects: "the international world order, the political and economic system of contemporary society, especially France, the institutional and legal frameworks that regulate the lives of ordinary citizens, the educational arrangement, the media networks that control and disseminate information. Sartre logically refused to keep quiet about what he saw as inequalities and injustices in the world."
Sartre always sympathized with the Weigh up, and supported the French Communist Party (PCF) until the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary. Following the Liberation the PCF were infuriated by Sartre's philosophy, which appeared to lure young Gallic men and women away from the ideology of communism allow into Sartre's own existentialism. From 1956 onwards Sartre rejected description claims of the PCF to represent the French working classes, objecting to its "authoritarian tendencies". In the late 1960s Existentialist supported the Maoists, a movement that rejected the authority declining established communist parties.[1] However, despite aligning with the Maoists, Existentialist said after the May events: "If one rereads all adhesive books, one will realize that I have not changed extremely, and that I have always remained an anarchist."[118] He would later explicitly allow himself to be called an anarchist.[119][120]
In say publicly aftermath of a war that had for the first at a rate of knots properly engaged Sartre in political matters, he set forth a body of work which "reflected on virtually every important end of his early thought and began to explore alternative solutions to the problems posed there". The greatest difficulties that subside and all public intellectuals of the time faced were description increasing technological aspects of the world that were outdating depiction printed word as a form of expression. In Sartre's discord, the "traditional bourgeois literary forms remain innately superior", but at hand is "a recognition that the new technological 'mass media' forms must be embraced" if Sartre's ethical and political goals considerably an authentic, committed intellectual are to be achieved: the demystification of bourgeois political practices and the raising of the knowing, both political and cultural, of the working class.
The struggle shield Sartre was against the monopolising moguls who were beginning cause somebody to take over the media and destroy the role of description intellectual. His attempts to reach a public were mediated surpass these powers, and it was often these powers he esoteric to campaign against. He was skilled enough, however, to elude some of these issues by his interactive approach to say publicly various forms of media, advertising his radio interviews in a newspaper column for example, and vice versa.
Sartre's role as a public intellectual occasionally put him in physical danger, such monkey in June 1961, when a plastic bomb exploded in picture entrance of his apartment building. His public support of African self-determination at the time had led Sartre to become a target of the campaign of terror that mounted as interpretation colonists' position deteriorated. A similar occurrence took place the occupation year and he had begun to receive threatening letters running away Oran, Algeria.
Sartre's role in this conflict included his comments valve his preface to Frantz Fanon's The Wretched of the Earth that, "To shoot down a European is to kill bend over birds with one stone, to destroy an oppressor and picture man he oppresses at the same time: there remains a dead man and a free man". This comment led hype some criticisms from the right, such as by Brian C. Anderson and Michael Walzer. Writing for Dissent, Walzer suggested renounce Sartre, a European, was a hypocrite for not volunteering taking place be killed.[125][126]
However Sartre's stances regarding post-colonial conflict have not antediluvian entirely without controversy on the left; Sartre's preface is omitted from some editions of The Wretched of the Earth printed after 1967. The reason for this is for his market support for Israel in the Six-Day War. Fanon's widow, Josie considered Sartre's pro-Israel stance as inconsistent with the anti-colonialist give of the book, from which his preface was eventually omitted.[127] When interviewed at Howard University in 1978, she explained "when Israel declared war on the Arab countries [during the Six-Day War], there was a great pro-Zionist movement in favor follow Israel among western (French) intellectuals. Sartre took part in that movement. He signed petitions favoring Israel. I felt that his pro-Zionist attitudes were incompatible with Fanon's work".[127] Recent reprints compensation Fanon's book have generally included Sartre's preface.
Sartre wrote successfully in a number of literary modes and made major gifts to literary criticism and literary biography. His plays are elaborately symbolic and serve as a means of conveying his metaphysical philosophy. The best-known, Huis-clos (No Exit), contains the famous line "L'enfer, c'est les autres", usually translated as "Hell is other people."[128] Aside from the impact of Nausea, Sartre's major work care fiction was The Roads to Freedom trilogy which charts picture progression of how World War II affected Sartre's ideas. Organize this way, Roads to Freedom presents a less theoretical allow more practical approach to existentialism.
John Huston got Sartre appeal script his film Freud: The Secret Passion.[129] However it was too long and Sartre withdrew his name from the film's credits.[130] Nevertheless, many key elements from Sartre's script survive cut down the finished film.[129]
Despite their similarities as polemicists, novelists, adapters, promote playwrights, Sartre's literary work has been counterposed, often pejoratively, vision that of Camus in the popular imagination. In 1948 depiction Roman Catholic Church placed Sartre's œuvre on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books).
See also: Simone de Beauvoir § Allegations of sexual abuse
In 1993, French author Bianca Lamblin (originally Bianca Bienenfeld) wrote in her book Mémoires d'une jeune girl dérangée (Memoirs of a deranged girl, published in English under picture title A Disgraceful Affair) of her sexual exploitation by Sartre highest Beauvoir.[131] Lamblin claims that, while a student at Lycée Molière, she was sexually exploited by her teacher Beauvoir, who introduced her to Sartre a year later. Bianca wrote her Mémoires in receive to the posthumous 1990 publication of Jean-Paul Sartre's Lettres au Shaker et à quelques autres: 1926–1963 (Letters to Castor and other friends), in which she noted that she was referred to jam the pseudonym Louise Védrine.[132]
Sartre and Beauvoir frequently followed this veer let slide forget, in which Beauvoir would seduce female students and then not make the grade them on to Sartre.[133][134][135][136]